Kubla Khan by Samuel Taylor Coleridge
"Kubla Khan" is a dream fragment that came to Coleridge when he fell asleep high on opium while reading a book of travels, Purcha’s Pilgrimage. It was a book related to Kubla Khan and the palace he commanded to be built. The real name of Kubla Khan was Kublai Khan who was the grandson of Genghis Khan and the founder of the Yuan Dynasty in 13th century China.
Waking up, he wrote hastily but was only able to write 54 lines when he was interrupted by an acquaintance that made him lose his inspiration. This resulted in an unfinished poem or a fragment.
Summary
In the first part of the poem, the speaker envisions the landscape surrounding the Mongol ruler and Chinese emperor Kubla Khan’s summer palace, called "Xanadu," describing it as a place of beauty, pleasure, and violence. He refers to this place as a "pleasure dome." He describes a river that crosses the landscape before flowing through several caves below ground and reaching the ocean. He also describes the fertile land that encircles the palace. There are streams, fragrant plants, and stunning woodlands all around. The speaker then gets excited about the river again and tells us about the canyon through which it flows. He makes it into a spooky, haunted place, where you might find a "woman wailing for her demon lover." He describes how the river leaps and smashes through the canyon, first exploding up into a noisy fountain and then finally sinking down and flowing through those underground caves into the ocean far away. The poet then proceeds to depict Kubla Khan himself, who is contemplating war while listening to this wild river.
In the second part, “poetic frenzy”, Coleridge describes another “vision” he experienced in which he saw an Abyssinian woman singing and playing an instrument. The thought of her song makes him yearn, and he sees himself singing it to conjure up images of Xanadu. The poet wishes that using his imagination he could have erected a dome in the skies with ice caves to collect the beauty and music of that damsel, just like Kubla Khan did in his pleasure dome. The audience would become engaged in the description of the sight and believe the poet to be some sort of magician upon witnessing him performing this. The poet would feel like some sort of superhuman person while under the influence of such creative inspiration.
Kubla Khan: Mongols/Tartars: ‘the Scourge of God’
Before initiating a discussion on Mongols, it is pertinent to state that Muslim historians and scholars have used the terms Mongols and Tartars interchangeably. The word Tartars, however, appears more frequently. Islam and Muslims faced arguably the greatest fitna till this day in the form of the “savage hordes” of Tartars who rose from the Mongolian steppes and took over the whole of Muslim lands “with a lightning speed”. Some Muslim historians have attributed the immediate cause-of Mongolian invasion to a serious mistake of Ala ud-din Muhammad, the Shah (ruler) of Khwarism (*Khwarism is a historic region along the Amu Darya (ancient Oxus River) of Turkistan, in the territories of present-day Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.) that gave the ruthless Genghis Khan an excuse to invade Muslim lands. However, there are other Muslim historian, too, that have given other explanations defending the position of the Shah.
The bloody episode of violence and bloodshed of millions of Muslims starts from Khwarizm with the defeat of the Shah, then like a lightning the Mongol barbarians took over the historical lands of Bukhara and Samarkand. This all happened between 1219-1220 CE. Everywhere they went, they left the city in ruins.
Ibn Kathir (ra) captures the plight of Bukhara: “They killed so many people that only Allah knows their exact number! They enslaved women and children. They raped women in the presence of their families. Of the Muslims, those who had fought were killed; and some who were captured were tortured badly. Then they burnt homes, masjids and schools and Bukhara fell into ruins.”
Ibn Atheer (ra) another prominent historian laments “O would that my mother had not born me or that I had died and become a forgotten thing ere this befell! Yet, withal a number of my friends urged me to set it down in writing, and I hesitated long, but at last came to the conclusion that to omit this matter could serve no useful purpose. I say, therefore, that this thing involves the description of the greatest catastrophe and the most dire calamity (of the like of which days and nights are innocent) which befell all men generally, and the Muslims in particular; so that, should one say that the world, since God Almighty created Adam until now, has not been afflicted with the like thereof, he would but speak the truth. For indeed history does not contain anything which approaches or comes near unto it. For of the most grievous calamities recorded was what Nebuchadnezzar inflicted on the children of Israel by his slaughter of them and his destruction of Jerusalem; and what was Jerusalem in comparison to the countries which these accursed miscreants destroyed, each city of which was double the size of Jerusalem? Or what were the children of Israel compared to those whom these slew? For verily those whom they massacred in a single city exceeded all the children of Israel. Nay, it is unlikely that mankind will see the like of this calamity, until the world comes to an end and perishes, except the final outbreak of Gog and Magog.”
Read the rest here.
Critical Analysis of the Poem
Or, a vision in a dream. A Fragment.
In Xanadu did Kubla Khan
A stately pleasure-dome decree:
Where Alph, the sacred river, ran
Through caverns measureless to man
Down to a sunless sea.
So twice five miles of fertile ground With walls and towers were girdled round;
And there were gardens bright with sinuous rills,
Where blossomed many an incense-bearing tree;
And here were forests ancient as the hills,
Enfolding sunny spots of greenery.
Kubla Khan, the Mongolian ruler, orders a grand pleasure palace to be built in his capital city, Xanadu on the banks of the ‘holy river’ Alph that flows through fathomless deep caves, ultimately sinking into a dark sea. For this purpose a fertile area of ten square miles was enclosed with walls and towers.
The river Alph is fictional, derived from the Greek word ‘alpha’ meaning ‘the first’. The speaker is associating the river with the creative power. That the river runs into vast, "measureless" caverns and a "sunless sea" suggests that the speaker is just as interested in the hidden, irrational parts of the human mind as its well-lit, rational areas: indeed, the “sunless sea” is potentially a symbol for the unconscious, for death, or for sleep.
Alliteration used- Kubla Khan, sunless sea, river ran.
This place had:
- bright gardens,
- winding streams (sinuous- moving gracefully, having curves in alternate directions; rills- brook)
- incensed trees with sweet-smelling flowers.
- Forests as ancient as hills with bright and green spaces.
But oh! that deep romantic chasm which slanted
Down the green hill athwart a cedarn cover! A savage place! as holy and enchanted
As e’er beneath a waning moon was haunted
By woman wailing for her demon-lover!
The distinguished feature of this site was a deep and unusual gorge that ran down the slope of a green hill across a jungle of cedar trees. The place gave an impression of a savage and fearful site pervaded with magic and witchcraft where a woman might be wandering about in search of her demon-lover in the dim light of a waning moon.
Athwart- (athort) across the path of something, so as to impede progress; from side to side often in an oblique manner.
Cedarn- (cedan) covered with cedar trees
Waning- becoming weak or smaller; of the lunar phase.
As if this earth in fast thick pants were breathing,
A mighty fountain momently was forced:
Amid whose swift half-intermitted burst
Huge fragments vaulted like rebounding hail,
Or chaffy grain beneath the thresher’s flail:
And mid these dancing rocks at once and ever
It flung up momently the sacred river.
At irregular intervals, a strong spring of water erupted from this gorge, creating an unceasing roar. The furious spring that was ejecting enormous amounts of water resembled the ground breathing heavily.
Huge rock fragments were thrown up by the forceful eruption of water. These fragments hit the ground and bounced back like hailstones thrown up by the earth after striking it or like grains leaping up when the farmer would beat with a flail to separate wheat from chaff. And amid those pieces of rock flying about, there gushed forth the fountain which was the source of the holy river Alph.
Five miles meandering with a mazy motion
Through wood and dale the sacred river ran,
Then reached the caverns measureless to man,
And sank in tumult to a lifeless ocean;
And ’mid this tumult Kubla heard from far
Ancestral voices prophesying war!
The shadow of the dome of pleasure
Floated midway on the waves;
Where was heard the mingled measure
From the fountain and the caves.
It was a miracle of rare device,
A sunny pleasure-dome with caves of ice!
This five-mile-long river Alph wound its way between valleys (dale) and forests.
‘Mazy motion’: like a maze, not straight, zigzagging; confused.
Then it went into the impossibly (measureless to men) deep caves, making a loud noise before sinking in the dead sea.
Tumult: (chumult) confused, agitated noise, violent commotion, uproar.
Amidst this noise Kubla Khan could hear his ancestors’ voice foretelling, future wars .
The shadow of the pleasure palace fell on the middle of the river where could be heard the mixed sounds (mingled measure) of the water gushing forth from the huge spring and some enormous caves. The pleasure palace was an example of great architectural skills. It had sunny domes but icy cold underground caves!
In a vision once I saw:
It was an Abyssinian maid
And on her dulcimer she played,
Singing of Mount Abora.
Once once I dreamt of an Abyssinian girl playing on a stringed musical instruments and singing a sweet song about amount Abora.
Could I revive within me
Her symphony and song,
To such a deep delight ’twould win me,
That with music loud and long,
I would build that dome in air,
That sunny dome! those caves of ice!
If it were possible for me to recapture the sweet music of that girl I would feel so enraptured that with my inspired poetry I would build that sunny luxury Palace and those caves of ice in the air.
And all who heard should see them there,
And all should cry, Beware! Beware!
His flashing eyes, his floating hair!
Weave a circle round him thrice,
And close your eyes with holy dread
For he on honey-dew hath fed,
And drunk the milk of Paradise.
And all who heard should see them there,
And all should cry, Beware! Beware!
His flashing eyes, his floating hair!
Weave a circle round him thrice,
And close your eyes with holy dread
For he on honey-dew hath fed,
And drunk the milk of Paradise.
Indeed my listeners would see the dome and the caves of ice so vividly in their imagination that they would think me a magician. They would be so impressed with the magic of my poetry that they would draw a circle around me thrice and would close their eyes in awe at the sight of my glittering and disordered hair which is a sign of poetic frenzy.
The audience proposes to use their own magic to contain the speaker and protect themselves from his creativity. They also propose a much simpler and more direct way to protect themselves against him that they will simply close their eyes and refuse to look at him.
He says, at the end of the poem that he has fed on honeydew and drink the milk of paradise, because, despite his holy dread, he has braved his fears to immerse himself in this deeper, prophetic world of the artist imagination.
Literary devices in the poem:
1. Simile: As we know in simile two things with different qualities are compared to present a vivid description of thing or a person. Example from the poem: “huge fragments vaulted like rebounding hail.”
2. Personification: is the attribution of human qualities to an inanimate object. Coleridge uses the device in I stanza where he states, “as if this earth in fast thick pant was breathing,” another eg. “the dancing rocks.”
3. Synecdoche: a figure of speech in which a part is made to represent the whole or vice versa, as in England lost by six wickets (meaning ‘the English cricket team’)” (Oxford) Example: “A mighty fountain momentarily was forced” the fountain has been used here for the waterfall that is coming out of a canyon with force.
4. Assonance: It is a repetition of the vowel sounds in the same line such as the sounds of /e/ in “deep delight”, “A stately pleasure-dome decree” and /a/ sound in “Through caverns measureless to man.”
5. Consonance: It is the repetition of consonant sounds such as /d/ sound in “deep delight”, /t/ in “fast thick pants breathing” and /f/ sound in “from the fountain.”
6. Alliteration: It is the repetition of the same consonant sounds in the same lines such as the use of /s/ sound in “sympathy and song.”
Rhyme Scheme: The poem does not follow any organized structure, therefore, the rhyme scheme varies from stanza to stanza.
Rhyming Iambic Meter: The poem uses three separate meters—iambic tetrameter, iambic pentameter, and even iambic trimeter.
Major themes in “Kubla Khan”:
1. Imagination and Creativity:
Coleridge stressed the importance of imagination heavily in his work as a Romantic poet. The poem implies that the speaker has been picturing what the Xanadu palace might look like. This poem is an attempt on the poet’s part to describe an obscure dream pursuading his readers to get absorbed in it via “willing suspension of disbelief ”.
2. Dreams and Reality:
From actual historical details to the speaker's dreams, "Kubla Khan" wanders backwards and forwards. After falling asleep while reading about Xanadu, Coleridge claims that the poem's lyrics came to him in a dream. By the time Coleridge attempted to replicate the lines he had dreamed, they had vanished from his memory. Therefore, the transient nature of the reality seen in dreams and the inability to recall them precisely also appears to be an essential theme in the text. Similar to how it is impossible to convey something so accurately in poetry that feels like a dream, is what Coleridge seems to be saying.
3. Menacing and supernatural aspect of Nature:
Coleridge emphasises the tragic, supernatural, and magnificent aspects of nature, in contrast to William Wordsworth who utilises examples from everyday life and emphasises the peaceful aspect of nature. In the poem Nature appears as a menacing, formidable and terrifying force.
The poet would thus be perceived by them as a powerful wizard. They would be shocked and terrified as soon as they saw his floating hair and his eyes that were always flashing. To guard against his magical abilities, they would go around him three times.
His vivid imagination would then induce "willing suspension of disbelief," giving the readers the impression that the complete beauty of the castle has been captured. His sparkling eyes, flaming hair, and smoky lips would overwhelm them with astonishment. They would take precautions to avoid getting close to him since his frenzied state would terrify them so much. The poet has tasted the bread and honey of divine creative inspiration and has cultivated a seductive musical influence in his appearance. They would close their eyes to protect themselves from the effects of his spell.
“willing suspension of disbelief”: “The concept that to become emotionally involved in a narrative, audiences must react as if the characters are real and the events are happening now, even though they know it is ‘only a story’. ‘The willing suspension of disbelief for the moment’ was how the British poet Coleridge phrased it in 1817, with reference to the audiences for literary works.” (Oxford reference)
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