Childhood Development: Social & Emotional

Social Development in Early Childhood

Early childhood, spanning from ages two to six, marks a critical period for social development. During the earlier years, children primarily learn within the home environment. However, as they grow, their social learning extends beyond the home to the neighborhood and school. In a study by W. Emmerich (1966), it was found that the social attitudes and behaviors children develop during this period often remain stable but can also evolve significantly. Another study (J. B. Raph et al., 1968) observed that children who engage in social interactions during this stage, particularly through school, experience important social development. Though at this age, interaction between children in the same room may be minimal, they begin to observe one another and engage in basic interactions, like discussing toys. By the age of four to six, children start participating in group games and develop friendships, which further enhances their social skills. As children age, the nature of their friendships deepens, with less emphasis on conflict and more focus on cooperation.

As children become more socially active, they also begin to develop a sense of independence in their expressions and thoughts. Rebellious tendencies may emerge, as noted in a study by H. W. Stevenson (1967), which found that fathers tend to have a greater influence on children's social development than mothers during this period.

Common Forms of Social Behavior in Early Childhood

Aggression: During early childhood, aggressive behaviors are common, often peaking around age five. These behaviors can arise from several factors, such as seeking attention, modeling older siblings, or reacting to punishment. Aggression is more likely to be directed at familiar children. Over time, as children become more socially adjusted, the intensity and frequency of aggressive behaviors tend to decrease.
Quarreling: Quarreling, which often involves physical or verbal aggression, is common among children. It typically peaks around age three and decreases as children develop better social skills. Quarrels may involve fighting over toys, scratching, biting, or pushing. Boys are observed to engage in more quarrels than girls.
Teasing: Teasing is a verbal act aimed at provoking another child, often as a way to feel superior. Boys tend to tease more than girls, and children who feel insecure or helpless are more likely to engage in teasing behavior.
Negative Behavior: Negative behavior, such as defying orders or doing the opposite of what is expected, can begin as early as five to six months and peaks around age six. Well-adjusted children often exhibit indirect negative behavior, while less-adjusted children may express it more directly. As children grow, they shift from physical defiance to verbal forms of resistance.
Cooperation: Cooperation, defined as the joint effort of two or more children to achieve a common goal, begins to develop around the age of three or four. Early signs of cooperation are seen in shared play activities. Children who spend more time with peers tend to develop cooperative behaviors more quickly. By six or seven, they start to understand the concept of teamwork. However, children raised with dominant parenting styles may show resistance to cooperation.
Jealousy: Jealousy often appears in children as young as three, manifesting in behaviors such as trying to prove superiority over others or claiming exclusive rights to toys. A study by R. E. Vogler (1970) showed that competition is more prevalent in six-year-olds and is more common among children from lower socio-economic backgrounds.
Generosity: Young children are naturally egocentric and selfish, particularly between the ages of four and six. As they mature, they begin to understand that selfishness does not lead to social approval. This realization helps them develop more generous behaviors, often modeled by parents or learned through positive reinforcement, as shown in studies by M. B. Harris (1970) and E. Staub and L. Sherk (1970).
Desire for Social Approval: Even before they can speak, children start recognizing the importance of social approval. Receiving praise and attention brings them joy, and this motivates them to behave in ways that align with societal expectations. The desire for social approval encourages children to adapt their behavior to fit in with their peers and society.
Dependency: Children often become dependent on others for tasks they believe they cannot accomplish on their own. Initially, this dependency is focused on parents, but it gradually shifts to siblings, family members, and friends. By the age of three or four, children may rely on their peer group for emotional support. Over-dependency can develop if the child feels insecure, as noted by H. L. Koch (1960), particularly in situations involving illness or the birth of a new sibling.
Friendship: Friendships in early childhood typically begin with siblings and expand to neighbors and schoolmates by the age of five or seven. Girls tend to form more affectionate friendships, while boys may have more fleeting connections. Although conflicts can arise between friends, they are usually short-lived. Friendships during this stage are influenced by factors such as common interests, physical proximity, and shared activities.
Sympathy: Sympathy, the ability to understand and share the feelings of others, starts to develop by the age of four. Children begin to express sympathy through both actions and language, offering help or comfort to their peers when needed.

Social Development in Late Childhood

Late childhood typically spans from six to twelve years of age. During this stage, the social development that began in early childhood continues to progress. With improvements in physical, mental, motor, and language abilities, children become more capable of expressing their desires and thoughts. They also begin to acquire social skills by interacting with peers, marking a critical phase of social growth.

At this stage, children tend to become more interested in their peers outside the home, with boys often more inclined to engage in outdoor play than girls. The period from six to ten years is often referred to as the "Gang Age," characterized by rapid social development and increased group participation. During this time, children become members of peer groups, which have a significant influence on their social attitudes, just as the family does.

According to Havighurst (1957), the peer group is defined as "an aggregation of people of approximately the same age who feel and act together." Children may move in and out of different peer groups, often based on their play activities rather than friendships. By around eight years old, children are actively participating in group games.

Patterns of Social Behavior

Social Approval:
Children seek validation from their peers regarding their behavior, clothing, games, and language. This need for approval is particularly strong in children who experience insecurity or inadequacy, and is associated with traits like jealousy, over-dependence, and cowardice. This feeling intensifies around ages eight to ten and begins to decline around age eleven. For girls, the desire for approval often starts diminishing by age eight.
Suggestibility:
Children in late childhood are highly susceptible to suggestions, especially from their peer group leaders. Suggestibility peaks around ages seven and eight. At this stage, children also exhibit "contra-suggestibility," where they behave in opposition to suggestions, displaying a form of negative behavior. While they are receptive to peer suggestions, they tend to resist adult suggestions, especially around ages nine to ten.
Rivalry and Competition in Groups:
Children in this age group are often competitive within their peer groups, striving to outdo each other to gain recognition from adults. Thompson (1963) describes several forms of competition:
- Children compete with their own group members, which can weaken group cohesion.
- Inter-group competition, such as team sports, strengthens group unity.
- Competing against older children or adults fosters a sense of independence.
Sports:
Cooperation is key to a child’s success in sports. While children often start playing at home, becoming proficient in games is a result of their collective experiences with peers. A good player is characterized by generosity, both in attitude and behavior. The better the child’s social development, the better their ability to cooperate and play effectively in teams.
Prejudice and Social Discrimination:
As children join various peer groups, they begin to form biases. Initially, they view their own group as superior and other groups as inferior. Over time, social discrimination may develop based on sex, religion, race, age, and socio-economic status. Studies (Cooper, 1968; Ogletree, 1969; Werner & Evans, 1968) indicate that prejudicial attitudes emerge as early as ages three to five, followed by prejudice-related behavior.
Responsibility:
Initially dependent on parents, a child's sense of responsibility grows with age and experience. Studies show that children from larger families tend to develop responsibility earlier, often taking care of younger siblings by age four or five. Koch (1960) found that children who lack opportunities to build self-confidence tend to lag in developing responsibility into adulthood.
Social Insight:
Social insight refers to a child's ability to understand and predict the behavior, feelings, and thoughts of others in various social situations. Lee (1960) suggests that a high level of social adjustment requires strong social insight, which develops with age and is often more pronounced in girls. Well-adjusted children tend to have greater social insight. Harlock (1990) noted that the more popular a child is, the more social insight they tend to develop.
Sex Antagonism:
During childhood, boys and girls typically get along and play together. However, as they approach adolescence, feelings of opposition begin to develop between the sexes. Studies (Reese, 1966; Ward, 1968) show that children develop preferences for the activities of the opposite sex during early childhood. However, by around age five or six, boys and girls start to express dislike for each other’s interests and activities. This can lead to feelings of superiority in boys and inferiority in girls, which may negatively impact their behavior.

Emotional Development and Emotional Intelligence in Children

Emotions play a crucial role in the lives of children. Emotions can drive individuals to perform significant actions for their community, religion, country, or humanity. The word "emotion" originates from the Latin term emovere, meaning "to move" or "to stir up." Emotions often arise from heightened feelings, which can result in physical excitement. Emotions like fear, anger, love, jealousy, curiosity, worry, sorrow, and shame, are powerful forces in children’s development and influence their behavior.

Understanding Emotion

Before discussing further, it’s essential to understand the meaning of emotion. Eysenck and his colleagues (1972) define emotion as a complex state involving heightened perception of an object or situation, physical changes, and behavioral responses toward approach or withdrawal, with feelings of attraction or repulsion. In other words, emotions organize behavior and trigger physiological responses.

As P. T. Young (1961) notes, emotion is "an intense disturbance of the whole person" arising from psychological reasons and manifesting through behavior, conscious experiences, and internal activities. According to English and English (1981), emotion is a complex state that includes motor and glandular activities, involving both internal and external responses.

Key Characteristics of Emotions

Internal and External Changes: Emotions cause both internal (e.g., heartbeat, hormones) and external (e.g., facial expressions, body language) changes.
Connection with Feelings: Emotions are closely tied to personal feelings.
Early Emergence: Infants display basic emotions from an early age.
Positive vs. Negative Emotions: Positive emotions bring pleasure, while negative emotions cause pain.
Suppression Increases Intensity: Suppressing emotions can make them stronger.
Energy Boost: Emotions provide extra energy, motivating action.
Emergency Protection: Emotions help protect individuals in dangerous situations by increasing activity and alertness.

Importance of Children's Emotions

Emotions hold great significance in the lives of children. Here are some key aspects of their importance:

Joy and Everyday Experiences: Children associate emotions with their daily experiences, finding pleasure in curiosity, affection, and happiness. They also release stress by expressing emotions like anger and fear. Harlock (1990) notes that joy is one of nature’s best medicines, as it dispels tension and relaxes the body, making all experiences more pleasant.
Emotional Habits: Repeated emotional responses in children often form habits. Children tend to develop habits around emotions that bring them pleasure.
Social Interactions: Children’s emotions influence their social behavior. How they respond emotionally affects how they interact with others.
Attitude Towards Life: Emotions shape a child’s perspective on life. For instance, a child prone to anger may face challenges in adjusting to social situations, which can impact relationships and well-being.
Self-Evaluation: Through emotions, children assess their own behavior and social standing. They evaluate themselves and others based on how they express emotions in different situations.
Activity and Physical Reactions: Emotions stimulate physical responses in children, such as increased heartbeat, reduced muscle fatigue, and enhanced adrenal and thyroid activity. These reactions increase a child's overall activity level. If not expressed, this heightened energy may lead to nervousness.
Mental Health Risks: If a child's emotional energy is not properly expressed, it can lead to mental health concerns. Behaviors like thumb-sucking and nail-biting may develop as a result of unexpressed emotions.
Physical Indicators of Emotion: Physical changes in a child—such as facial expressions and body posture—offer clues about their emotional state.
Impact on Cognitive Functioning: Prolonged negative emotions can affect a child's mental abilities, such as learning, memory, reasoning, and concentration.
Influence on Psychological Environment: A child's emotional state affects the psychological atmosphere of their environment, which in turn influences their behavior. For example, a child prone to jealousy or quarrels may provoke irritation among family members, which could reduce the nurturing environment they need.

Development of Emotional Patterns

Understanding how emotional patterns develop is crucial for providing the best emotional support to children. Emotional development is influenced primarily by hereditary factors, but environmental factors such as a child's health, birth order, and gender also play significant roles. Additionally, learning and maturity affect the shaping of emotional patterns over time.

Emotional Development in Early Childhood

During early childhood, emotional intensity increases significantly. Common emotions at this stage include curiosity, happiness, fear, jealousy, anger, and affection. Several psychological studies (Marga, 1966; Bawkin, 1974; Lazar et al., 1973) indicate that girls tend to show more affection and concern, while boys are more likely to display anger during early childhood.

Emotional Development in Late Childhood

In late childhood, children begin to exhibit more positive emotions and understand that displaying negative emotions, such as jealousy, anger, sadness, or conflict, may result in social disapproval. A study by Huesman and Hetzer (1985) found that children in late childhood can easily learn aggressive behaviors through exposure to television and films and may demonstrate these behaviors at home. Toward the end of this stage, children may occasionally display hyper-emotional tendencies, which evolve as they mature.

It has been noted that by the age of two, the development of all major emotions begins. As children age and gain more experiences, their emotional expressions become clearer and more refined. Emotional changes and developments are driven by both maturity and learning. Bijez's research offers insight into the specific emotions that emerge at different stages from birth to two years, which are depicted in the following diagram.

Age	Development of Emotions
Birth	Excitement
3 months	Excitement > Distress & Delight
6 months	Excitement Ø Distress > Fear, Disgust, Anger Ø Delight
1 year	Excitement Ø Distress > Fear, Disgust, Anger Ø Delight > Elation, Affection for adults
1 ½ year	Excitement Ø Distress > Fear, Disgust, Anger, Jealousy Ø Delight > Elation, Affection for adults, Affection for children
2 years	Excitement Ø Distress > Fear, Disgust, Anger, Jealousy Ø Delight > Elation, Affection for adults, Affection for children, Joy

Information Integration Theory

This theory, proposed by Hilgard, Atkinson, and Atkinson (1975), explains how a child processes and integrates information from their surroundings. According to the theory, when a child encounters an event or object, their sensory system is stimulated, and the activation of the sympathetic nervous system sends signals to the brain from both the internal and external parts of the body.

Based on this incoming information, the child attempts to understand the object or event. During this process, they evaluate and compare their past experiences stored in memory and the new information they are currently perceiving. This comparison and evaluation result in the conscious experience of emotions.

In summary, emotional behavior is the outcome of three interconnected factors: the stimulus (the event or object), the physical/physiological responses, and cognitive processing. Emotional responses occur when information from all these factors is integrated. Hilgard and colleagues (1975) presented this concept through a model, illustrating the flow of information and how it results in emotional behavior.

Model Illustration of Information Integration Theory

Characteristics of Children's Emotions

The emotions of children differ significantly from those of adults, not only in their expression but also in their nature and intensity. While adults experience more developed and nuanced emotions, children are in the early stages of emotional development. Key differences exist in the frequency, intensity, and expression of emotions between adults and children.

1. Transitory Nature of Emotions

Children’s emotions are fleeting and do not last long. A child might laugh one moment and cry the next, or quickly shift from anger to joy. In contrast, adult emotions tend to be more stable and last for a longer period. This transitory nature in children is due to their limited experience, intellectual development, shorter attention span, and reduced memory capacity. They cannot fully understand or process emotional situations, leading to quick emotional changes.

2. Higher Frequency of Emotional Episodes

Children experience emotions more frequently than adults. While adults might not experience a wide range of emotions daily, children constantly cycle through various emotions like fear, anger, happiness, jealousy, and love in quick succession. The rapid shifts in their emotional states are part of their natural developmental process.

3. Greater Intensity of Emotions

Children's emotions are often more intense than those of adults, primarily because they lack control over their emotional responses. For instance, an angry child might throw tantrums, kick, scream, or even roll on the floor. Adults, on the other hand, have learned to manage and suppress intense emotions due to their greater life experience and developed social abilities. As children grow and gain understanding, they learn to moderate their emotional intensity.

4. Individuality in Emotional Responses

Newborns exhibit similar emotional responses, but as children grow, their emotional responses become more individualized. This is due to their increasing experience and cognitive development. For example, one child may react to fear by crying, another may freeze, while a third may seek comfort from a parent. These individual differences reflect their unique personality traits and experiences.

5. Changing Strength of Emotions

As children grow older, the strength of their emotions evolves. Some emotions that are initially strong may weaken over time, while others that were weaker might become stronger. For instance, a child’s early fears may diminish as they mature, while emotions like empathy and love may become more pronounced. Adults tend to have greater emotional stability, with less fluctuation in the strength of their emotions.

6. Rapid Facial Expression of Emotions

Children’s emotions are often immediately visible on their faces. They express their feelings openly, often without regard to the social environment. A child may display anger, joy, or hatred in a raw and unfiltered manner. Adults, however, are more likely to suppress their emotions and express them in ways that align with societal norms and situational expectations. While it can be difficult to detect an adult's emotions, a child's feelings are often easily identified through behavioral signs like crying, thumb-sucking, biting nails, or daydreaming.

7. Individual Differences in Emotional Behavior

Significant individual differences exist in children's emotional behavior. Even when comparing a specific emotional response, such as fear or anger, across a group of children, there will be variations in intensity, expression, and reaction. These differences become more pronounced as children grow older, influenced by their unique temperaments, environments, and developmental stages.

8. Distinct Behavioral Symptoms of Emotions

Certain behaviors are commonly associated with children's emotional states. These include actions like screaming, shouting, gnashing teeth, rolling on the floor, biting nails, and thumb-sucking. These behaviors provide clear signs of emotional expression, making it easier to detect a child’s emotional state.

Additional Characteristics of Children's Emotions:

Purity and Clarity: Children’s emotions are often more pure and transparent than those of adults, who tend to mask or regulate their emotional responses.
Rapid Emotional Transitions: Children’s emotions can change very quickly. A crying child may start laughing moments later, indicating the fluidity of their emotional states.
Lack of Emotional Control: Children have less control over their emotions compared to adults, which often leads to more expressive and uninhibited emotional outbursts.
Connection to Concrete Objects and Situations: Most of children's emotions are tied to tangible objects or immediate situations, unlike adults who may experience emotions triggered by abstract thoughts or complex scenarios.

Factors Affecting Childhood Emotionality

The origin and development of a child’s emotions are influenced by maturation and learning, but other factors also play significant roles in shaping emotional behavior. These factors help explain why some children are more emotional while others are less so. The major factors are as follows:

Bodily Health
Children's health is closely tied to their emotionality. Harlank (1990) suggests that limited physical support and weak health, especially due to illnesses or poor digestion, increase emotional instability. Serious or chronic diseases can further heighten emotional instability, leading to changes in emotional behavior. Fatigued children are often more prone to anger.
Intelligence
Emotionality is related to a child's intelligence. Intelligence helps children perceive emotional situations and make decisions about how to express emotions. Studies show that children with lower intelligence exhibit less fear, while those with higher intelligence display more fear. Additionally, children with high intelligence learn to manage their emotions in socially acceptable ways earlier than those with lower intelligence. Jersild et al. (1974) found that emotional stability is more common among children with advanced cognitive growth.
Sex
Boys and girls differ in emotionality. Boys tend to display less fear, while girls exhibit higher levels of jealousy.
Parent-Child Relationship
Children who are over-pampered or over-protected tend to be more dependent on their parents, and while they may feel less anxious, they are more prone to temperamental outbursts. Conversely, children raised by strict parents tend to be timid and easily frightened. Rejected children often develop quicker tendencies toward aggression and anger.
Social Environment
A child's emotional behavior is shaped by their social environment. If a child is raised in an environment where conflict is common, anger is likely to develop. In addition to family influences, children learn emotional expressions from those around them, including their neighbors and schoolmates. In a study by N. N. Springer (1938), children from poorer families showed greater emotional instability and struggled with emotional adjustment.
Ordinal Position
Birth order plays an important role in emotional development. Firstborn children typically receive more love and protection, fostering early emotional traits such as affection and submissiveness. In contrast, later-born children, who may receive less parental attention, often become more quarrelsome and quick-tempered.
Family Size
Larger families tend to foster quicker emotional development. Children in these families have more opportunities to observe and imitate emotional expressions due to frequent interactions with siblings and other family members. Children from smaller families have fewer such opportunities.
Socio-Economic Status
In a study by J. N. Lal (1968) on Indian children, it was found that children from high socio-economic backgrounds have less emotional stability. According to Rallock (1990), children from lower socio-economic backgrounds tend to experience more fear of violence, while those from wealthier families have relatively less fear.
Personality
Children who feel insecure tend to exhibit more fear, while those with a greater sense of security show less fear. Studies also indicate that extroverted children tend to express more fear than introverts, as extroverts are more likely to imitate others.
Social Environment
The broader social environment in which a child is raised also impacts their emotional behavior. If a child is surrounded by people who frequently express anger, the child is likely to adopt similar emotional patterns. On the other hand, exposure to healthier emotional expressions leads to more balanced emotional development.
Self-Confidence
Jersild (1978) noted, "Anything that diminishes a child's self-confidence or detracts from his self-esteem may increase his tendency to feel anxious or fearful." Situations that threaten a child’s self-regard or hinder important goals can trigger anxiety and fear.
Parental Attitudes
Parental attitudes also influence emotional development. In a study by Goldberg (1998), it was found that children who are not given opportunities for independence struggle with emotional growth. If parents are frequently absent or indifferent, or if they constantly control or criticize their child’s behavior, the child's emotional development is negatively affected. Children should be allowed the space to grow emotionally without unnecessary restrictions.

Some Emotions of Childhood

From the age of around three months, children begin developing various emotions that evolve as they grow. Below are descriptions of some key emotions that children experience:

1. Fear

Fear is a natural response in which children attempt to escape from perceived dangers. In fearful situations, children may cry, scream, tremble, or experience an increased heart rate. As their intellectual abilities develop, the intensity of fear increases, and they begin to fear a wider variety of things. Common childhood fears include animals, darkness, heights, being alone, unfamiliar people, loud noises, and sudden movements.

Age-related development: Fear peaks between the ages of 2 to 6, with older children developing fears related to death, injury, and even social reputation.
Responses to fear: Young children may react by hiding, seeking help, or running to a trusted adult, but as they grow, their reactions become less immediate.
Factors influencing fear: Intelligence, gender, socio-economic status, and birth order all affect fear levels, with girls and children of lower socio-economic status being more fearful.

2. Shyness

Shyness is a form of social fear where a child avoids interaction or hesitates to engage with others. This emotion is often directed at unfamiliar people or those perceived to be superior in some way. Shy children may run away, stammer, or blush when faced with unfamiliar social situations, such as speaking in front of others.

Impact of shyness: Shyness can limit social interactions, leading to feelings of loneliness, exclusion from peer groups, and weakened social skills. Shy children are often less favored in social settings and are seldom chosen as leaders.
Social consequences: Children who avoid social interaction due to shyness may struggle with social learning and personal adjustment.

3. Worry

Worry is a type of exaggerated fear born from a child’s imagination. It typically develops as a child’s intellectual and imaginative abilities grow, often around the age of three. Worry continues to develop through childhood and peaks in adolescence.

Sources of worry: Children may worry about family, friends, or school. In adolescence, worries often center on physical changes and body image.
Symptoms: Worry can manifest as depression, nervousness, mood swings, restless sleep, and sensitivity to criticism. Prolonged worry can disrupt a child’s mental health and lead to physical symptoms.

4. Anger

Anger is one of the more common emotions in children. Children often learn early on that anger can be a powerful way to draw attention. Anger can be directed at people or objects, and children may respond aggressively by hitting, biting, spitting, or exhibiting inhibited behavior such as withdrawal.

Age-related trends: Anger peaks around the age of three, then fluctuates through childhood.
Triggers: Anger can be triggered by hunger, illness, or frustration in adjusting to new environments.

5. Jealousy

Jealousy arises when a child feels threatened by the loss of affection from a parent or caregiver. The birth of a sibling is a common trigger, as the older child may feel replaced.

Demographic trends: Jealousy is more common in girls and the first-born child. Children from smaller families tend to experience jealousy more intensely.
Behavioral responses: Jealous children may react destructively or display regressive behaviors like bed-wetting or thumb-sucking.

6. Curiosity

Curiosity is an essential emotion that drives children to explore and learn about the world around them. It fuels their desire to understand their environment and their own bodies. As children grow, their curiosity extends to other people, objects, and situations, and by the age of three, they frequently ask questions to satisfy their curiosity.

Expression of curiosity: Children may display curiosity through facial expressions like widening their eyes, tensing their facial muscles, or wrinkling their foreheads.
Role in development: Curiosity plays a critical role in intellectual growth and helps children engage with their surroundings, increasing their awareness and learning capacity.

7. Affection

Affection is an emotional response in which a child feels drawn to people or things that bring them happiness. While children begin smiling at their caregivers around three months, genuine feelings of affection typically emerge around six months. Affection helps foster social bonds and is crucial for emotional and social development.

Early affection: Initially directed towards caregivers, affection later extends to other people and even animals.
Role in personality development: Affection is key to a child’s emotional adjustment and social relationships.

Something to your liking, dear?

Idyllic